TensorFlow 概率中的多层级建模入门

此示例移植自 PyMC3 示例笔记本 多层级建模的贝叶斯方法入门

在 TensorFlow.org 上查看 在 Google Colab 中运行 在 GitHub 上查看源代码 下载笔记本

依赖项和先决条件

导入

1 简介

在这个 Colab 中，我们将使用流行的Radon数据集，使用 TFP 原语及其马尔可夫链蒙特卡罗工具集拟合不同模型复杂度的分层线性模型 (HLM)。

为了更好地拟合数据，我们的目标是利用数据集中存在的自然分层结构。我们从传统方法开始：完全合并和未合并模型。我们继续进行多层级模型：探索部分合并模型、组级预测变量和上下文效应。

有关使用 TFP 在 Radon 数据集上拟合 HLM 的相关笔记本，请查看 {TF 概率、R、Stan} 中的线性混合效应回归。

如果您对这里的内容有任何疑问，请随时联系（或加入）TensorFlow 概率邮件列表。我们很乐意提供帮助。

2 多层级建模概述

多层级建模的贝叶斯方法入门

分层或多层级建模是回归建模的推广。

多层级模型是回归模型，其中组成模型参数被赋予概率分布。这意味着模型参数允许按组变化。观测单元通常自然地聚类。聚类会导致观测值之间存在依赖关系，尽管对聚类进行随机抽样，并在聚类内进行随机抽样。

分层模型是一种特殊的多层级模型，其中参数相互嵌套。一些多层级结构不是分层的。

例如，“国家”和“年份”没有嵌套，但可能代表不同的但重叠的参数聚类。我们将使用环境流行病学示例来激发这个主题。

示例：氡污染（Gelman 和 Hill 2006）

氡是一种放射性气体，通过与地面的接触点进入房屋。它是一种致癌物质，是非吸烟者肺癌的主要原因。氡水平在不同的家庭之间差异很大。

EPA 对 80,000 户房屋的氡水平进行了研究。两个重要的预测变量是：1. 地下室或一楼的测量值（地下室的氡含量更高）2. 县铀水平（与氡水平呈正相关）

我们将重点关注明尼苏达州的氡水平建模。此示例中的层次结构是每个县内的家庭。

3 数据整理

在本节中，我们将获取 radon 数据集 并进行一些最小的预处理。

def load_and_preprocess_radon_dataset(state='MN'):  
  """Preprocess Radon dataset as done in "Bayesian Data Analysis" book.

  We filter to Minnesota data (919 examples) and preprocess to obtain the
  following features:
  - `log_uranium_ppm`: Log of soil uranium measurements.
  - `county`: Name of county in which the measurement was taken.
  - `floor`: Floor of house (0 for basement, 1 for first floor) on which the
    measurement was taken.

  The target variable is `log_radon`, the log of the Radon measurement in the
  house.
  """
  ds = tfds.load('radon', split='train')
  radon_data = tfds.as_dataframe(ds)
  radon_data.rename(lambda s: s[9:] if s.startswith('feat') else s, axis=1, inplace=True)
  df = radon_data[radon_data.state==state.encode()].copy()

  # For any missing or invalid activity readings, we'll use a value of `0.1`.
  df['radon'] = df.activity.apply(lambda x: x if x > 0. else 0.1)
  # Make county names look nice. 
  df['county'] = df.county.apply(lambda s: s.decode()).str.strip().str.title()
  # Remap categories to start from 0 and end at max(category).
  county_name = sorted(df.county.unique())
  df['county'] = df.county.astype(
      pd.api.types.CategoricalDtype(categories=county_name)).cat.codes
  county_name = list(map(str.strip, county_name))

  df['log_radon'] = df['radon'].apply(np.log)
  df['log_uranium_ppm'] = df['Uppm'].apply(np.log)
  df = df[['idnum', 'log_radon', 'floor', 'county', 'log_uranium_ppm']]

  return df, county_name

radon, county_name = load_and_preprocess_radon_dataset()
num_counties = len(county_name)
num_observations = len(radon)

# Create copies of variables as Tensors.
county = tf.convert_to_tensor(radon['county'], dtype=tf.int32)
floor = tf.convert_to_tensor(radon['floor'], dtype=tf.float32)
log_radon = tf.convert_to_tensor(radon['log_radon'], dtype=tf.float32)
log_uranium = tf.convert_to_tensor(radon['log_uranium_ppm'], dtype=tf.float32)

radon.head()

氡水平分布（对数刻度）

plt.hist(log_radon.numpy(), bins=25, edgecolor='white')
plt.xlabel("Histogram of Radon levels (Log Scale)")
plt.show()

png

4 传统方法

对氡暴露建模的两种传统方法代表了偏差-方差权衡的两个极端

完全合并

将所有县视为相同，并估计单个氡水平。

\[y_i = \alpha + \beta x_i + \epsilon_i\]

不合并

独立地对每个县的氡进行建模。

\(y_i = \alpha_{j[i]} + \beta x_i + \epsilon_i\) 其中 \(j = 1,\ldots,85\)

误差 \(\epsilon_i\) 可能代表测量误差、时间内房屋变化或房屋之间的变化。

4.1 完全合并模型

png

下面，我们使用哈密顿蒙特卡罗拟合完全合并模型。

@tf.function
def affine(x, kernel_diag, bias=tf.zeros([])):
  """`kernel_diag * x + bias` with broadcasting."""
  kernel_diag = tf.ones_like(x) * kernel_diag
  bias = tf.ones_like(x) * bias
  return x * kernel_diag + bias

def pooled_model(floor):
  """Creates a joint distribution representing our generative process."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # alpha
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # beta
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma
      lambda s, b1, b0: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=affine(floor, b1[..., tf.newaxis], b0[..., tf.newaxis]),
          scale_identity_multiplier=s)
  ])


@tf.function
def pooled_log_prob(alpha, beta, sigma):
  """Computes `joint_log_prob` pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return pooled_model(floor).log_prob([alpha, beta, sigma, log_radon])

@tf.function
def sample_pooled(num_chains, num_results, num_burnin_steps, num_observations):
  """Samples from the pooled model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=pooled_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=10,
      step_size=0.005)

  initial_state = [
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_alpha'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_beta'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma')
  ]

  # Constrain `sigma` to the positive real axis. Other variables are
  # unconstrained.
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Identity(),  # alpha
      tfb.Identity(),  # beta
      tfb.Exp()        # sigma
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)

  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

PooledModel = collections.namedtuple('PooledModel', ['alpha', 'beta', 'sigma'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_pooled(
    num_chains=4,
    num_results=1000,
    num_burnin_steps=1000,
    num_observations=num_observations)

print('Acceptance Probabilities for each chain: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
pooled_samples = PooledModel._make(samples)

Acceptance Probabilities for each chain:  [0.999 0.996 0.995 0.995]

for var, var_samples in pooled_samples._asdict().items():
  print('R-hat for ', var, ':\t',
        tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(var_samples).numpy())

R-hat for  alpha :     1.0019042
R-hat for  beta :  1.0135655
R-hat for  sigma :     0.99958754

def reduce_samples(var_samples, reduce_fn):
  """Reduces across leading two dims using reduce_fn."""
  # Collapse the first two dimensions, typically (num_chains, num_samples), and
  # compute np.mean or np.std along the remaining axis.
  if isinstance(var_samples, tf.Tensor):
    var_samples = var_samples.numpy() # convert to numpy array
  var_samples = np.reshape(var_samples, (-1,) +  var_samples.shape[2:])
  return np.apply_along_axis(reduce_fn, axis=0, arr=var_samples)

sample_mean = lambda samples : reduce_samples(samples, np.mean)

绘制完全合并模型的斜率和截距的点估计。

LinearEstimates = collections.namedtuple('LinearEstimates',
                                        ['intercept', 'slope'])

pooled_estimate = LinearEstimates(
  intercept=sample_mean(pooled_samples.alpha),
  slope=sample_mean(pooled_samples.beta)
)

plt.scatter(radon.floor, radon.log_radon)
xvals = np.linspace(-0.2, 1.2)
plt.ylabel('Radon level (Log Scale)')
plt.xticks([0, 1], ['Basement', 'First Floor'])
plt.plot(xvals, pooled_estimate.intercept + pooled_estimate.slope * xvals, 'r--')
plt.show()

png

用于绘制采样变量轨迹的实用程序函数。

for var, var_samples in pooled_samples._asdict().items():
  plot_traces(var, samples=var_samples, num_chains=4)

png

png

png

接下来，我们估计非合并模型中每个县的氡水平。

4.2 非合并模型

png

def unpooled_model(floor, county):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the unpooled model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(       # alpha
          loc=tf.zeros([num_counties]), scale_identity_multiplier=1e5),
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),    # beta
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma
      lambda s, b1, b0: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=affine(
            floor, b1[..., tf.newaxis], tf.gather(b0, county, axis=-1)),
          scale_identity_multiplier=s)
  ])


@tf.function
def unpooled_log_prob(beta0, beta1, sigma):
  """Computes `joint_log_prob` pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return (
    unpooled_model(floor, county).log_prob([beta0, beta1, sigma, log_radon]))

@tf.function
def sample_unpooled(num_chains, num_results, num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the unpooled model."""
  # Initialize the HMC transition kernel.
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=unpooled_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=10,
      step_size=0.025)

  initial_state = [
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='init_beta0'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_beta1'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma')
  ]
  # Contrain `sigma` to the positive real axis. Other variables are
  # unconstrained.
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Identity(),  # alpha
      tfb.Identity(),  # beta
      tfb.Exp()        # sigma
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

UnpooledModel = collections.namedtuple('UnpooledModel',
                                       ['alpha', 'beta', 'sigma'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_unpooled(
    num_chains=4, num_results=1000, num_burnin_steps=1000)

print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
unpooled_samples = UnpooledModel._make(samples)

print('R-hat for beta:',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(unpooled_samples.beta).numpy())
print('R-hat for sigma:',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(unpooled_samples.sigma).numpy())

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.895 0.897 0.893 0.901]
R-hat for beta: 1.0052257
R-hat for sigma: 1.0035229

plot_traces(var_name='beta', samples=unpooled_samples.beta, num_chains=4)
plot_traces(var_name='sigma', samples=unpooled_samples.sigma, num_chains=4)

png

png

以下是每个链的截距的非合并县预期值以及 95% 可信区间。我们还报告了每个县估计值的 R-hat 值。

森林图的效用函数。

forest_plot(
    num_chains=4,
    num_vars=num_counties,
    var_name='alpha',
    var_labels=county_name,
    samples=unpooled_samples.alpha.numpy())

png

我们可以绘制排序的估计值以识别氡水平高的县。

unpooled_intercepts = reduce_samples(unpooled_samples.alpha, np.mean)
unpooled_intercepts_se = reduce_samples(unpooled_samples.alpha, np.std)

def plot_ordered_estimates():
  means = pd.Series(unpooled_intercepts, index=county_name)
  std_errors = pd.Series(unpooled_intercepts_se, index=county_name)
  order = means.sort_values().index

  plt.plot(range(num_counties), means[order], '.')
  for i, m, se in zip(range(num_counties), means[order], std_errors[order]):
    plt.plot([i, i], [m - se, m + se], 'C0-')
  plt.xlabel('Ordered county')
  plt.ylabel('Radon estimate')
  plt.show()

plot_ordered_estimates()

png

效用函数，用于绘制一组样本县的估计值。

以下是代表一系列样本量的子集县的合并和非合并估计值之间的视觉比较。

unpooled_estimates = LinearEstimates(
  sample_mean(unpooled_samples.alpha),
  sample_mean(unpooled_samples.beta)
)

sample_counties = ('Lac Qui Parle', 'Aitkin', 'Koochiching', 'Douglas', 'Clay',
                   'Stearns', 'Ramsey', 'St Louis')
plot_estimates(
    linear_estimates=[unpooled_estimates, pooled_estimate],
    labels=['Unpooled Estimates', 'Pooled Estimates'],
    sample_counties=sample_counties)

png

这两个模型都不令人满意。

  • 如果我们试图识别高氡县，合并就没有用。
  • 我们不信任使用少量观测值产生的极端非合并估计值。

5 多级和分层模型

当我们合并数据时，我们丢失了不同数据点来自不同县的信息。这意味着每个 radon 水平观测值都是从同一个概率分布中采样的。这种模型无法学习组内固有的采样单元的任何变化（例如，县）。它只考虑了采样方差。

png

当我们对数据进行非合并分析时，我们暗示它们是从独立的模型中独立采样的。与合并情况相反，这种方法声称采样单元之间的差异太大，无法将它们合并。

png

在分层模型中，参数被视为从参数总体分布中采样的样本。因此，我们认为它们既不完全不同也不完全相同。这被称为 **部分合并**。

png

5.1 部分合并

家庭氡数据集最简单的部分合并模型是仅估计氡水平的模型，而无论是在组级别还是个体级别都没有任何预测变量。个体级别预测变量的一个例子是数据点来自地下室还是一楼。组级别预测变量可以是全县平均铀水平。

部分合并模型代表了合并和非合并极端之间的折衷方案，大约是非合并县估计值和合并估计值的加权平均值（基于样本量）。

设 \(\hat{\alpha}_j\) 为县 \(j\) 中估计的对数氡水平。它只是一个截距；我们现在忽略斜率。\(n_j\) 是来自县 \(j\) 的观测值数量。\(\sigma_{\alpha}\) 和 \(\sigma_y\) 分别是参数内的方差和采样方差。然后，部分合并模型可以假设

\[\hat{\alpha}_j \approx \frac{(n_j/\sigma_y^2)\bar{y}_j + (1/\sigma_{\alpha}^2)\bar{y} }{(n_j/\sigma_y^2) + (1/\sigma_{\alpha}^2)}\]

我们期望在使用部分合并时出现以下情况。

  • 样本量较小的县的估计值将收缩到全州平均值。
  • 样本量较大的县的估计值将更接近非合并县估计值。

png

def partial_pooling_model(county):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the partial pooling model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),    # mu_a
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_a
      lambda sigma_a, mu_a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # a
          loc=mu_a[..., tf.newaxis] * tf.ones([num_counties])[tf.newaxis, ...],
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_a),
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_y
      lambda sigma_y, a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=tf.gather(a, county, axis=-1),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_y)
  ])


@tf.function
def partial_pooling_log_prob(mu_a, sigma_a, a, sigma_y):
  """Computes joint log prob pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return partial_pooling_model(county).log_prob(
      [mu_a, sigma_a, a, sigma_y, log_radon])

@tf.function
def sample_partial_pooling(num_chains, num_results, num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the partial pooling model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=partial_pooling_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=10,
      step_size=0.01)

  initial_state = [
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_mu_a'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='init_a'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_y')
  ]
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Identity(),  # mu_a
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # a
      tfb.Exp()        # sigma_y
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

PartialPoolingModel = collections.namedtuple(
    'PartialPoolingModel', ['mu_a', 'sigma_a', 'a', 'sigma_y'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_partial_pooling(
    num_chains=4, num_results=1000, num_burnin_steps=1000)

print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
partial_pooling_samples = PartialPoolingModel._make(samples)

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.989 0.978 0.987 0.987]

for var in ['mu_a', 'sigma_a', 'sigma_y']:
  print(
      'R-hat for ', var, '\t:',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(getattr(partial_pooling_samples,
                                                 var)).numpy())

R-hat for  mu_a     : 1.0276643
R-hat for  sigma_a  : 1.0204039
R-hat for  sigma_y  : 1.0008202

partial_pooling_intercepts = reduce_samples(
    partial_pooling_samples.a.numpy(), np.mean)
partial_pooling_intercepts_se = reduce_samples(
    partial_pooling_samples.a.numpy(), np.std)

def plot_unpooled_vs_partial_pooling_estimates():
  fig, axes = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(14, 6), sharex=True, sharey=True)

  # Order counties by number of observations (and add some jitter).
  num_obs_per_county = (
      radon.groupby('county')['idnum'].count().values.astype(np.float32))
  num_obs_per_county += np.random.normal(scale=0.5, size=num_counties)

  intercepts_list = [unpooled_intercepts, partial_pooling_intercepts]
  intercepts_se_list = [unpooled_intercepts_se, partial_pooling_intercepts_se]

  for ax, means, std_errors in zip(axes, intercepts_list, intercepts_se_list):
    ax.plot(num_obs_per_county, means, 'C0.')
    for n, m, se in zip(num_obs_per_county, means, std_errors):
      ax.plot([n, n], [m - se, m + se], 'C1-', alpha=.5)

  for ax in axes:
    ax.set_xscale('log')
    ax.set_xlabel('No. of Observations Per County')
    ax.set_xlim(1, 100)
    ax.set_ylabel('Log Radon Estimate (with Standard Error)')
    ax.set_ylim(0, 3)
    ax.hlines(partial_pooling_intercepts.mean(), .9, 125, 'k', '--', alpha=.5)
  axes[0].set_title('Unpooled Estimates')
  axes[1].set_title('Partially Pooled Estimates')

plot_unpooled_vs_partial_pooling_estimates()

png

请注意非合并估计值和部分合并估计值之间的差异，尤其是在样本量较小的情况下。前者既更极端，也更不精确。

5.2 变化截距

我们现在考虑一个更复杂的模型，该模型允许截距根据随机效应在县之间变化。

\(y_i = \alpha_{j[i]} + \beta x_{i} + \epsilon_i\) 其中 \(\epsilon_i \sim N(0, \sigma_y^2)\) 以及截距随机效应

\[\alpha_{j[i]} \sim N(\mu_{\alpha}, \sigma_{\alpha}^2)\]

斜率 \(\beta\)（允许观测值根据测量位置（地下室或一楼）而变化）仍然是不同县之间共享的固定效应。

与非合并模型一样，我们为每个县设置一个单独的截距，但与为每个县拟合单独的最小二乘回归模型不同，多级建模在县之间 **共享强度**，从而允许在数据很少的县中进行更合理的推断。

png

def varying_intercept_model(floor, county):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the varying intercept model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),    # mu_a
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_a
      lambda sigma_a, mu_a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # a
          loc=affine(tf.ones([num_counties]), mu_a[..., tf.newaxis]),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_a),
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),    # b
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_y
      lambda sigma_y, b, a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=affine(floor, b[..., tf.newaxis], tf.gather(a, county, axis=-1)),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_y)
  ])


def varying_intercept_log_prob(mu_a, sigma_a, a, b, sigma_y):
  """Computes joint log prob pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return varying_intercept_model(floor, county).log_prob(
      [mu_a, sigma_a, a, b, sigma_y, log_radon])

@tf.function
def sample_varying_intercepts(num_chains, num_results, num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the varying intercepts model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=varying_intercept_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=10,
      step_size=0.01)

  initial_state = [
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_mu_a'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='init_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_y')
  ]
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Identity(),  # mu_a
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # a
      tfb.Identity(),  # b
      tfb.Exp()        # sigma_y
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

VaryingInterceptsModel = collections.namedtuple(
    'VaryingInterceptsModel', ['mu_a', 'sigma_a', 'a', 'b', 'sigma_y'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_varying_intercepts(
    num_chains=4, num_results=1000, num_burnin_steps=1000)

print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
varying_intercepts_samples = VaryingInterceptsModel._make(samples)

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.989 0.98  0.988 0.983]

for var in ['mu_a', 'sigma_a', 'b', 'sigma_y']:
  print(
      'R-hat for ', var, ': ',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(
          getattr(varying_intercepts_samples, var)).numpy())

R-hat for  mu_a :  1.0196627
R-hat for  sigma_a :  1.0671698
R-hat for  b :  1.0017126
R-hat for  sigma_y :  0.99950683

varying_intercepts_estimates = LinearEstimates(
    sample_mean(varying_intercepts_samples.a),
    sample_mean(varying_intercepts_samples.b))
sample_counties = ('Lac Qui Parle', 'Aitkin', 'Koochiching', 'Douglas', 'Clay',
                   'Stearns', 'Ramsey', 'St Louis')
plot_estimates(
    linear_estimates=[
        unpooled_estimates, pooled_estimate, varying_intercepts_estimates
    ],
    labels=['Unpooled', 'Pooled', 'Varying Intercepts'],
    sample_counties=sample_counties)

png

def plot_posterior(var_name, var_samples):
  if isinstance(var_samples, tf.Tensor):
    var_samples = var_samples.numpy() # convert to numpy array

  fig = plt.figure(figsize=(10, 3))
  ax = fig.add_subplot(111)
  ax.hist(var_samples.flatten(), bins=40, edgecolor='white')
  sample_mean = var_samples.mean()
  ax.text(
      sample_mean,
      100,
      'mean={:.3f}'.format(sample_mean),
      color='white',
      fontsize=12)
  ax.set_xlabel('posterior of ' + var_name)
  plt.show()


plot_posterior('b', varying_intercepts_samples.b)
plot_posterior('sigma_a', varying_intercepts_samples.sigma_a)

png

png

楼层系数的估计值约为 -0.69，可以解释为在考虑县之后，没有地下室的房屋的氡水平约为有地下室的房屋的一半 (\(\exp(-0.69) = 0.50\))。

for var in ['b']:
  var_samples = getattr(varying_intercepts_samples, var)
  mean = var_samples.numpy().mean()
  std = var_samples.numpy().std()
  r_hat = tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(var_samples).numpy()
  n_eff = tfp.mcmc.effective_sample_size(var_samples).numpy().sum()

  print('var: ', var, ' mean: ', mean, ' std: ', std, ' n_eff: ', n_eff,
        ' r_hat: ', r_hat)

var:  b  mean:  -0.6920927  std:  0.07004689  n_eff:  430.58865  r_hat:  1.0017126

def plot_intercepts_and_slopes(linear_estimates, title):
  xvals = np.arange(2)
  intercepts = np.ones([num_counties]) * linear_estimates.intercept
  slopes = np.ones([num_counties]) * linear_estimates.slope
  fig, ax = plt.subplots()
  for c in range(num_counties):
    ax.plot(xvals, intercepts[c] + slopes[c] * xvals, 'bo-', alpha=0.4)
  plt.xlim(-0.2, 1.2)
  ax.set_xticks([0, 1])
  ax.set_xticklabels(['Basement', 'First Floor'])
  ax.set_ylabel('Log Radon level')
  plt.title(title)
  plt.show()

plot_intercepts_and_slopes(varying_intercepts_estimates,
                           'Log Radon Estimates (Varying Intercepts)')

png

5.3 变化斜率

或者，我们可以假设一个模型，该模型允许县根据测量位置（地下室或一楼）如何影响氡读数而变化。在这种情况下，截距 \(\alpha\) 在县之间共享。

\[y_i = \alpha + \beta_{j[i]} x_{i} + \epsilon_i\]

png

def varying_slopes_model(floor, county):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the varying slopes model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # mu_b
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_b
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # a
      lambda _, sigma_b, mu_b: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # b
          loc=affine(tf.ones([num_counties]), mu_b[..., tf.newaxis]),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_b),
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_y
      lambda sigma_y, b, a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=affine(floor, tf.gather(b, county, axis=-1), a[..., tf.newaxis]),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_y)
  ])


def varying_slopes_log_prob(mu_b, sigma_b, a, b, sigma_y):
  return varying_slopes_model(floor, county).log_prob(
      [mu_b, sigma_b, a, b, sigma_y, log_radon])

@tf.function
def sample_varying_slopes(num_chains, num_results, num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the varying slopes model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=varying_slopes_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=25,
      step_size=0.01)

  initial_state = [
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_mu_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_b'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='init_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_y')
  ]
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Identity(),  # mu_b
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_b
      tfb.Identity(),  # a
      tfb.Identity(),  # b
      tfb.Exp()        # sigma_y
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

VaryingSlopesModel = collections.namedtuple(
    'VaryingSlopesModel', ['mu_b', 'sigma_b', 'a', 'b', 'sigma_y'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_varying_slopes(
    num_chains=4, num_results=1000, num_burnin_steps=1000)

print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
varying_slopes_samples = VaryingSlopesModel._make(samples)

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.98  0.982 0.986 0.988]

for var in ['mu_b', 'sigma_b', 'a', 'sigma_y']:
  print(
      'R-hat for ', var, '\t: ',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(getattr(varying_slopes_samples,
                                                 var)).numpy())

R-hat for  mu_b     :  1.0972525
R-hat for  sigma_b  :  1.1294962
R-hat for  a    :  1.0047072
R-hat for  sigma_y  :  1.0015919

varying_slopes_estimates = LinearEstimates(
    sample_mean(varying_slopes_samples.a),
    sample_mean(varying_slopes_samples.b))

plot_intercepts_and_slopes(varying_slopes_estimates,
                           'Log Radon Estimates (Varying Slopes)')

png

5.4 变化截距和斜率

最通用的模型允许截距和斜率都按县变化。

\[y_i = \alpha_{j[i]} + \beta_{j[i]} x_{i} + \epsilon_i\]

png

def varying_intercepts_and_slopes_model(floor, county):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the varying slope model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),    # mu_a
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_a
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),    # mu_b
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_b
      lambda sigma_b, mu_b, sigma_a, mu_a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # a
          loc=affine(tf.ones([num_counties]), mu_a[..., tf.newaxis]),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_a),
      lambda _, sigma_b, mu_b: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # b
          loc=affine(tf.ones([num_counties]), mu_b[..., tf.newaxis]),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_b),
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_y
      lambda sigma_y, b, a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=affine(floor, tf.gather(b, county, axis=-1),
                     tf.gather(a, county, axis=-1)),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_y)
  ])


@tf.function
def varying_intercepts_and_slopes_log_prob(mu_a, sigma_a, mu_b, sigma_b, a, b,
                                           sigma_y):
  """Computes joint log prob pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return varying_intercepts_and_slopes_model(floor, county).log_prob(
      [mu_a, sigma_a, mu_b, sigma_b, a, b, sigma_y, log_radon])

@tf.function
def sample_varying_intercepts_and_slopes(num_chains, num_results,
                                         num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the varying intercepts and slopes model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=varying_intercepts_and_slopes_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=50,
      step_size=0.01)

  initial_state = [
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_mu_a'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_mu_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_b'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='init_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='init_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_y')
  ]
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Identity(),  # mu_a
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # mu_b
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_b
      tfb.Identity(),  # a
      tfb.Identity(),  # b
      tfb.Exp()        # sigma_y
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

VaryingInterceptsAndSlopesModel = collections.namedtuple(
    'VaryingInterceptsAndSlopesModel',
    ['mu_a', 'sigma_a', 'mu_b', 'sigma_b', 'a', 'b', 'sigma_y'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_varying_intercepts_and_slopes(
    num_chains=4, num_results=1000, num_burnin_steps=500)

print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
varying_intercepts_and_slopes_samples = VaryingInterceptsAndSlopesModel._make(
    samples)

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.989 0.958 0.984 0.985]

for var in ['mu_a', 'sigma_a', 'mu_b', 'sigma_b']:
  print(
      'R-hat for ', var, '\t: ',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(
          getattr(varying_intercepts_and_slopes_samples, var)).numpy())

R-hat for  mu_a     :  1.0002819
R-hat for  sigma_a  :  1.0014255
R-hat for  mu_b     :  1.0111941
R-hat for  sigma_b  :  1.0994663

varying_intercepts_and_slopes_estimates = LinearEstimates(
    sample_mean(varying_intercepts_and_slopes_samples.a),
    sample_mean(varying_intercepts_and_slopes_samples.b))

plot_intercepts_and_slopes(
    varying_intercepts_and_slopes_estimates,
    'Log Radon Estimates (Varying Intercepts and Slopes)')

png

forest_plot(
    num_chains=4,
    num_vars=num_counties,
    var_name='a',
    var_labels=county_name,
    samples=varying_intercepts_and_slopes_samples.a.numpy())
forest_plot(
    num_chains=4,
    num_vars=num_counties,
    var_name='b',
    var_labels=county_name,
    samples=varying_intercepts_and_slopes_samples.b.numpy())

png

png

6 添加组级别预测变量

多级模型的主要优势是能够同时处理多个级别的预测变量。如果我们考虑上面的变化截距模型

\(y_i = \alpha_{j[i]} + \beta x_{i} + \epsilon_i\) 我们可能不是使用简单的随机效应来描述预期氡值的差异，而是指定另一个具有县级协变量的回归模型。在这里，我们使用县铀读数 \(u_j\)，它被认为与氡水平有关。

\(\alpha_j = \gamma_0 + \gamma_1 u_j + \zeta_j\)\(\zeta_j \sim N(0, \sigma_{\alpha}^2)\) 因此，我们现在正在合并房屋级别预测变量（楼层或地下室）以及县级别预测变量（铀）。

请注意，该模型既有每个县的指示变量，也有县级协变量。在经典回归中，这会导致共线性。在多级模型中，截距向组级别线性模型的预期值的部分合并避免了这种情况。

组级别预测变量也有助于减少组级别差异 \(\sigma_{\alpha}\)。这一个重要含义是，组级别估计会诱导更强的合并。

6.1 分层截距模型

png

def hierarchical_intercepts_model(floor, county, log_uranium):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the varying slope model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_a
      lambda sigma_a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # eps_a
          loc=tf.zeros([num_counties]),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_a),
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_0
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_1
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # b
      tfd.Uniform(low=0., high=100),  # sigma_y
      lambda sigma_y, b, gamma_1, gamma_0, eps_a: tfd.
      MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=affine(
              floor, b[..., tf.newaxis],
              affine(log_uranium, gamma_1[..., tf.newaxis], 
                     gamma_0[..., tf.newaxis]) + tf.gather(eps_a, county, axis=-1)),
          scale_identity_multiplier=sigma_y)
  ])


def hierarchical_intercepts_log_prob(sigma_a, eps_a, gamma_0, gamma_1, b,
                                     sigma_y):
  """Computes joint log prob pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return hierarchical_intercepts_model(floor, county, log_uranium).log_prob(
      [sigma_a, eps_a, gamma_0, gamma_1, b, sigma_y, log_radon])

@tf.function
def sample_hierarchical_intercepts(num_chains, num_results, num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the hierarchical intercepts model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=hierarchical_intercepts_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=10,
      step_size=0.01)

  initial_state = [
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='eps_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_0'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_1'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_y')
  ]
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # eps_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_0
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_0
      tfb.Identity(),  # b
      # Maps reals to [0, 100].
      tfb.Chain([tfb.Shift(shift=50.),
                 tfb.Scale(scale=50.),
                 tfb.Tanh()])  # sigma_y
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

HierarchicalInterceptsModel = collections.namedtuple(
    'HierarchicalInterceptsModel',
    ['sigma_a', 'eps_a', 'gamma_0', 'gamma_1', 'b', 'sigma_y'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_hierarchical_intercepts(
    num_chains=4, num_results=2000, num_burnin_steps=500)
print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
hierarchical_intercepts_samples = HierarchicalInterceptsModel._make(samples)

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.956  0.959  0.9675 0.958 ]

for var in ['sigma_a', 'gamma_0', 'gamma_1', 'b', 'sigma_y']:
  print(
      'R-hat for', var, ':',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(
          getattr(hierarchical_intercepts_samples, var)).numpy())

R-hat for sigma_a : 1.0204408
R-hat for gamma_0 : 1.0075455
R-hat for gamma_1 : 1.0054599
R-hat for b : 1.0011046
R-hat for sigma_y : 1.0004083

def plot_hierarchical_intercepts():
  mean_and_var = lambda x : [reduce_samples(x, fn) for fn in [np.mean, np.var]]
  gamma_0_mean, gamma_0_var = mean_and_var(
    hierarchical_intercepts_samples.gamma_0)
  gamma_1_mean, gamma_1_var = mean_and_var(
    hierarchical_intercepts_samples.gamma_1)
  eps_a_means, eps_a_vars  = mean_and_var(hierarchical_intercepts_samples.eps_a)

  mu_a_means = gamma_0_mean + gamma_1_mean * log_uranium
  mu_a_vars = gamma_0_var + np.square(log_uranium) * gamma_1_var
  a_means = mu_a_means + eps_a_means[county]
  a_stds = np.sqrt(mu_a_vars + eps_a_vars[county])

  plt.figure()
  plt.scatter(log_uranium, a_means, marker='.', c='C0')
  xvals = np.linspace(-1, 0.8)
  plt.plot(xvals,gamma_0_mean + gamma_1_mean * xvals, 'k--')
  plt.xlim(-1, 0.8)

  for ui, m, se in zip(log_uranium, a_means, a_stds):
    plt.plot([ui, ui], [m - se, m + se], 'C1-', alpha=0.1)
  plt.xlabel('County-level uranium')
  plt.ylabel('Intercept estimate')


plot_hierarchical_intercepts()

png

截距的标准误差比没有县级协变量的部分合并模型更窄。

6.2 各个级别之间的相关性

在某些情况下，在多个级别上具有预测变量可以揭示个体级别变量和组残差之间的相关性。我们可以通过在组截距模型中包含个体预测变量的平均值作为协变量来解决这个问题。

\(\alpha_j = \gamma_0 + \gamma_1 u_j + \gamma_2 \bar{x} + \zeta_j\) 这些通常被称为 **情境效应**。

png

# Create a new variable for mean of floor across counties
xbar = tf.convert_to_tensor(radon.groupby('county')['floor'].mean(), tf.float32)
xbar = tf.gather(xbar, county, axis=-1)

def contextual_effects_model(floor, county, log_uranium, xbar):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the varying slope model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_a
      lambda sigma_a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # eps_a
          loc=tf.zeros([num_counties]),
          scale_diag=sigma_a[..., tf.newaxis] * tf.ones([num_counties])),
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_0
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_1
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_2
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # b
      tfd.Uniform(low=0., high=100),  # sigma_y
      lambda sigma_y, b, gamma_2, gamma_1, gamma_0, eps_a: tfd.
      MultivariateNormalDiag(  # y
          loc=affine(
              floor, b[..., tf.newaxis],
              affine(log_uranium, gamma_1[..., tf.newaxis], gamma_0[
                  ..., tf.newaxis]) + affine(xbar, gamma_2[..., tf.newaxis]) +
              tf.gather(eps_a, county, axis=-1)),
          scale_diag=sigma_y[..., tf.newaxis] * tf.ones_like(xbar))
  ])


def contextual_effects_log_prob(sigma_a, eps_a, gamma_0, gamma_1, gamma_2, b,
                                sigma_y):
  """Computes joint log prob pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return contextual_effects_model(floor, county, log_uranium, xbar).log_prob(
      [sigma_a, eps_a, gamma_0, gamma_1, gamma_2, b, sigma_y, log_radon])

@tf.function
def sample_contextual_effects(num_chains, num_results, num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the hierarchical intercepts model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=contextual_effects_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=10,
      step_size=0.01)

  initial_state = [
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='eps_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_0'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_1'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_2'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_y')
  ]
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # eps_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_0
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_1
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_2
      tfb.Identity(),  # b
      tfb.Chain([tfb.Shift(shift=50.),
                 tfb.Scale(scale=50.),
                 tfb.Tanh()])  # sigma_y
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

ContextualEffectsModel = collections.namedtuple(
    'ContextualEffectsModel',
    ['sigma_a', 'eps_a', 'gamma_0', 'gamma_1', 'gamma_2', 'b', 'sigma_y'])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_contextual_effects(
    num_chains=4, num_results=2000, num_burnin_steps=500)
print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
contextual_effects_samples = ContextualEffectsModel._make(samples)

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.948 0.952 0.956 0.953]

for var in ['sigma_a', 'gamma_0', 'gamma_1', 'gamma_2', 'b', 'sigma_y']:
  print(
      'R-hat for ', var, ': ',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(
          getattr(contextual_effects_samples, var)).numpy())

R-hat for  sigma_a :  1.1393573
R-hat for  gamma_0 :  1.0081229
R-hat for  gamma_1 :  1.0007668
R-hat for  gamma_2 :  1.012864
R-hat for  b :  1.0019505
R-hat for  sigma_y :  1.0056173

for var in ['gamma_0', 'gamma_1', 'gamma_2']:
  var_samples = getattr(contextual_effects_samples, var)
  mean = var_samples.numpy().mean()
  std = var_samples.numpy().std()
  r_hat = tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(var_samples).numpy()
  n_eff = tfp.mcmc.effective_sample_size(var_samples).numpy().sum()

  print(var, ' mean: ', mean, ' std: ', std, ' n_eff: ', n_eff, ' r_hat: ',
        r_hat)

gamma_0  mean:  1.3939122  std:  0.051875897  n_eff:  572.4374  r_hat:  1.0081229
gamma_1  mean:  0.7207277  std:  0.090660274  n_eff:  727.2628  r_hat:  1.0007668
gamma_2  mean:  0.40686083  std:  0.20155264  n_eff:  381.74048  r_hat:  1.012864

因此，我们可能从这里推断出，没有地下室的房屋比例更高的县往往具有更高的氡基线水平。也许这与土壤类型有关，而土壤类型反过来又可能影响建造的结构类型。

6.3 预测

Gelman (2006) 使用交叉验证测试来检查非合并、合并和部分合并模型的预测误差。

均方根交叉验证预测误差

  • 非合并 = 0.86
  • 合并 = 0.84
  • 多级 = 0.79

在多级模型中可以进行两种类型的预测。

  1. 现有组中的新个体
  2. 新组中的新个体

例如，如果我们想对圣路易斯县的一栋没有地下室的新房屋进行预测，我们只需要从具有适当截距的氡模型中进行采样即可。

county_name.index('St Louis')

69

也就是说，

\[\tilde{y}_i \sim N(\alpha_{69} + \beta (x_i=1), \sigma_y^2)\]

st_louis_log_uranium = tf.convert_to_tensor(
    radon.where(radon['county'] == 69)['log_uranium_ppm'].mean(), tf.float32)
st_louis_xbar = tf.convert_to_tensor(
    radon.where(radon['county'] == 69)['floor'].mean(), tf.float32)

@tf.function
def intercept_a(gamma_0, gamma_1, gamma_2, eps_a, log_uranium, xbar, county):
  return (affine(log_uranium, gamma_1, gamma_0) + affine(xbar, gamma_2) +
          tf.gather(eps_a, county, axis=-1))


def contextual_effects_predictive_model(floor, county, log_uranium, xbar,
                                        st_louis_log_uranium, st_louis_xbar):
  """Creates a joint distribution for the contextual effects model."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=0., scale=5),  # sigma_a
      lambda sigma_a: tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(  # eps_a
          loc=tf.zeros([num_counties]),
          scale_diag=sigma_a[..., tf.newaxis] * tf.ones([num_counties])),
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_0
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_1
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # gamma_2
      tfd.Normal(loc=0., scale=1e5),  # b
      tfd.Uniform(low=0., high=100),  # sigma_y
      # y
      lambda sigma_y, b, gamma_2, gamma_1, gamma_0, eps_a: (
        tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(
          loc=affine(
              floor, b[..., tf.newaxis],
              intercept_a(gamma_0[..., tf.newaxis], 
                          gamma_1[..., tf.newaxis], gamma_2[..., tf.newaxis],
                          eps_a, log_uranium, xbar, county)),
          scale_diag=sigma_y[..., tf.newaxis] * tf.ones_like(xbar))),
      # stl_pred
      lambda _, sigma_y, b, gamma_2, gamma_1, gamma_0, eps_a: tfd.Normal(
          loc=intercept_a(gamma_0, gamma_1, gamma_2, eps_a,
                          st_louis_log_uranium, st_louis_xbar, 69) + b,
          scale=sigma_y)
  ])


@tf.function
def contextual_effects_predictive_log_prob(sigma_a, eps_a, gamma_0, gamma_1,
                                           gamma_2, b, sigma_y, stl_pred):
  """Computes joint log prob pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return contextual_effects_predictive_model(floor, county, log_uranium, xbar,
                                             st_louis_log_uranium,
                                             st_louis_xbar).log_prob([
                                                 sigma_a, eps_a, gamma_0,
                                                 gamma_1, gamma_2, b, sigma_y,
                                                 log_radon, stl_pred
                                             ])

@tf.function
def sample_contextual_effects_predictive(num_chains, num_results,
                                         num_burnin_steps):
  """Samples from the contextual effects predictive model."""
  hmc = tfp.mcmc.HamiltonianMonteCarlo(
      target_log_prob_fn=contextual_effects_predictive_log_prob,
      num_leapfrog_steps=50,
      step_size=0.01)

  initial_state = [
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains, num_counties], name='eps_a'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_0'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_1'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_gamma_2'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_b'),
      tf.ones([num_chains], name='init_sigma_y'),
      tf.zeros([num_chains], name='init_stl_pred')
  ]
  unconstraining_bijectors = [
      tfb.Exp(),       # sigma_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # eps_a
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_0
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_1
      tfb.Identity(),  # gamma_2
      tfb.Identity(),  # b
      tfb.Chain([tfb.Shift(shift=50.),
                 tfb.Scale(scale=50.),
                 tfb.Tanh()]),  # sigma_y
      tfb.Identity(),  # stl_pred
  ]
  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
      inner_kernel=hmc, bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)
  samples, kernel_results = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_results,
      num_burnin_steps=num_burnin_steps,
      current_state=initial_state,
      kernel=kernel)

  acceptance_probs = tf.reduce_mean(
      tf.cast(kernel_results.inner_results.is_accepted, tf.float32), axis=0)

  return samples, acceptance_probs

ContextualEffectsPredictiveModel = collections.namedtuple(
    'ContextualEffectsPredictiveModel', [
        'sigma_a', 'eps_a', 'gamma_0', 'gamma_1', 'gamma_2', 'b', 'sigma_y',
        'stl_pred'
    ])

samples, acceptance_probs = sample_contextual_effects_predictive(
    num_chains=4, num_results=2000, num_burnin_steps=500)
print('Acceptance Probabilities: ', acceptance_probs.numpy())
contextual_effects_pred_samples = ContextualEffectsPredictiveModel._make(
    samples)

Acceptance Probabilities:  [0.981  0.9795 0.972  0.9705]

for var in [
    'sigma_a', 'gamma_0', 'gamma_1', 'gamma_2', 'b', 'sigma_y', 'stl_pred'
]:
  print(
      'R-hat for ', var, ': ',
      tfp.mcmc.potential_scale_reduction(
          getattr(contextual_effects_pred_samples, var)).numpy())

R-hat for  sigma_a :  1.0053602
R-hat for  gamma_0 :  1.0008001
R-hat for  gamma_1 :  1.0015156
R-hat for  gamma_2 :  0.99972683
R-hat for  b :  1.0045198
R-hat for  sigma_y :  1.0114483
R-hat for  stl_pred :  1.0045049

plot_traces('stl_pred', contextual_effects_pred_samples.stl_pred, num_chains=4)

png

plot_posterior('stl_pred', contextual_effects_pred_samples.stl_pred)

png

7 结论

多级模型的优势

  • 考虑观测数据的自然层次结构。
  • 估计（代表性不足）组的系数。
  • 在估计组级别系数时合并个体级别和组级别信息。
  • 允许个体级别系数在组之间变化。

参考文献

Gelman, A., & Hill, J. (2006). Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press.

Gelman, A. (2006). Multilevel (Hierarchical) modeling: what it can and cannot do. Technometrics, 48(3), 432–435.